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Final Cause

One of Aristotle's four causes (telos). It is the purpose, goal, or end for which something exists or is done. For example, the final cause of a seed is the adult plant.

Law of Non-Contradiction

A fundamental principle of logic (Aristotle) stating that contradictory statements cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time (e.g., "A is B" and "A is not B" cannot both be true).

Metaphysics

The branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, including being, space, time, causation, and possibility.

Substance (Ousia)

The fundamental entities of reality that exist independently and support attributes. Aristotle identified substances as "this-something" (tode ti); Spinoza argued for a single substance (God/Nature).